Kerala's geographical and cultural diversity has profoundly influenced its land use and agricultural practices over centuries. Known for its lush greenery and fertile soil, the state has a rich history of innovative irrigation and farming techniques, as well as complex land ownership patterns that shaped its socio-economic landscape.
Ancient Irrigation and Farming Techniques
1. Overview of Ancient Agriculture in Kerala
Kerala's agrarian practices were historically aligned with its distinct geographical zones: coastal plains, midlands, and highlands. Rice, coconut, and spices like black pepper, cardamom, and ginger were prominent crops, flourishing in the state's tropical climate.
2. Water Resource Management
Traditional Irrigation Channels (Surangams): Ancient farmers utilized surangams, horizontal tunnel systems, to channel groundwater to the surface. These structures are believed to have originated from Kerala's hilly terrain, particularly in regions like Malabar.
Ponds and Tanks: Ponds (locally known as kulam) and tanks were integral for irrigation and drinking water. Many were community-managed and served multiple villages.
Rivers and Canals: The states major rivers, including Bharathapuzha, Periyar, and Pamba, were harnessed through small canals and sluices. These supported year-round paddy cultivation.
3. Agronomic Innovations
Kettuvaravu System: Farmers developed temporary embankments (kettuvaravu) in wetlands to manage water levels during monsoons. These embankments prevented waterlogging, crucial for rice cultivation.
Tree-based Agriculture: Intercropping coconut palms with pepper vines and areca nut was common, ensuring resource efficiency.
Pokkali Farming: A unique practice in Kerala, pokkali farming combined paddy cultivation during monsoons with prawn farming in saline waters during the dry season. This sustainable technique exemplifies the harmony between agriculture and aquaculture.
Land Ownership and Feudal Systems
1. Historical Land Tenure Systems
Kerala's land tenure system evolved through a complex mix of feudal ownership, caste hierarchy, and customary rights.
Janmi System: The dominant system during medieval Kerala, the Janmi (landlord) owned vast estates, with tenants (verumpattakar) cultivating the land. This structure was rooted in feudalism and closely tied to caste systems.
Kanam-Kuzhikanam Tenure: This intermediate land tenure system granted cultivators tenancy rights for a fixed period in exchange for annual dues. It ensured stability for tenants but maintained the landlord's control.
Cherikkal Lands: Cherikkal lands were crown lands administered by local rulers or their representatives, often given as gifts to Brahmins or temples, reinforcing socio-religious hierarchies.
2. Land Ownership and Social Hierarchies
Brahmin Dominance: Brahmins (Namboodiris) were primary beneficiaries of the Janmi system, owning large tracts of agricultural land. They employed lower-caste tenants and retained socio-economic supremacy.
Tenant Farmers: Tenant farmers, primarily from lower castes, worked the land under oppressive terms. They had limited rights and faced exploitation through high rents and bonded labor systems.
Temple Lands: Many Janmis donated lands to temples as devaswom lands, further entrenching religious institutions into land management and social systems.
3. Decline of Feudal Systems
The Janmi system declined with the advent of British colonial rule, which introduced the Land Revenue System:
British reforms redefined land ownership, creating permanent settlement rights for landlords.
Tenant uprisings in the early 20th century, inspired by movements like the Malabar Rebellion (1921), called for agrarian reforms.
Post-Independence Land Reforms
1. Agrarian Reform Acts
The Kerala Agrarian Relations Act (1957) and subsequent reforms abolished landlordism, redistributing land to the tillers.
Restrictions were imposed on the size of landholdings to ensure equitable distribution.
2. Land Redistribution Outcomes
The reforms significantly reduced feudal inequities.
However, they also led to the fragmentation of holdings, posing challenges for large-scale agriculture.
3. Emergence of Collective Farming
Post-reforms, the state witnessed the rise of collective farming initiatives like Padasekharams (group farming systems) to counter land fragmentation and maintain productivity.
Modern Agricultural Challenges
1. Decline in Traditional Practices
Surangams and ponds
have been neglected due to urbanization and changing lifestyles.Modern irrigation relies heavily on borewells and mechanized systems, posing sustainability concerns.
2. Impact of Globalization
Global market forces have reduced the profitability of traditional crops like pepper and cardamom.
Many farmers have
shifted from rice to cash crops, impacting food security.3. Climate Change and Monsoonal Variability
Erratic rainfall patterns and frequent floods have disrupted the agricultural calendar, making traditional farming techniques less viable.